Georgian scripts

The Georgian scripts are the three writing systems used to write the Georgian language: Asomtavruli, Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli. Although the systems differ in appearance, their letters share the same names and alphabetical order and are written horizontally from left to right. Of the three scripts, Mkhedruli, once the official script of the Kingdom of Georgia and mostly used for the royal charters, is now the standard script for modern Georgian and its related Kartvelian languages, whereas Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are used only by the Georgian Orthodox Church, in ceremonial religious texts and iconography. Georgian scripts are unique in their appearance and their exact origin has never been established; however, in strictly structural terms, their alphabetical order largely corresponds to the Greek alphabet, with the exception of letters denoting uniquely Georgian sounds, which are grouped at the end. Originally consisting of 38 letters, Georgian is presently written in a 33-letter alphabet, as five letters are obsolete. The number of Georgian letters used in other Kartvelian languages varies. Mingrelian uses 36: thirty-three that are current Georgian letters, one obsolete Georgian letter, and two additional letters specific to Mingrelian and Svan. Laz uses the same 33 current Georgian letters as Mingrelian plus that same obsolete letter and a letter borrowed from Greek for a total of 35. The fourth Kartvelian language, Svan, is not commonly written, but when it is, it uses Georgian letters as utilized in Mingrelian, with an additional obsolete Georgian letter and sometimes supplemented by diacritics for its many vowels. The "living culture of three writing systems of the Georgian alphabet" was granted the national status of intangible cultural heritage in Georgia in 2015 and inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2016.

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Form of Asomtavruli letters

In early Asomtavruli, the letters are of equal height. Georgian historian and philologist Pavle Ingorokva believes that the direction of Asomtavruli, like that of Greek, was initially boustrophedon, though the direction of the earliest surviving texts is from left to the right. In most Asomtavruli letters, straight lines are horizontal or vertical and meet at right angles. The only letter with acute angles is Ⴟ (jani). There have been various attempts to explain this exception. Georgian linguist and art historian Helen Machavariani believes jani derives from a monogram of Christ, composed of (ini) and (kani). According to Georgian scholar Ramaz Pataridze, the cross-like shape of letter jani indicates the end of the alphabet, and has the same function as the similarly shaped Phoenician letter taw ( ), Greek chi (Χ), and Latin X, though these letters do not have that function in Phoenician, Greek, or Latin. Coins of Queen Tamar of Georgia and King George IV of Georgia minted using Asomtavruli script, 1200–1210 AD. From the 7th century, the forms of some letters began to change. The equal height of the letters was abandoned, with letters acquiring ascenders and descenders.

Asomtavruli illumination

In Nuskhuri manuscripts, Asomtavruli are used for titles and illuminated capitals. The latter were used at the beginnings of paragraphs which started new sections of text. In the early stages of the development of Nuskhuri texts, Asomtavruli letters were not elaborate and were distinguished principally by size and sometimes by being written in cinnabar ink. Later, from the 10th century, the letters were illuminated. The style of Asomtavruli capitals can be used to identify the era of a text. For example, in the Georgian manuscripts of the Byzantine era, when the styles of the Byzantine Empire influenced Kingdom of Georgia, capitals were illuminated with images of birds and other animals. Decorative Asomtavruli capital letters, Ⴋ (m) and Ⴇ (t), 12–13th century. From the 11th-century "limb-flowery", "limb-arrowy" and "limb-spotty" decorative forms of Asomtavruli are developed. The first two are found in 11th- and 12th-century monuments, whereas the third one is used until the 18th century. Importance was attached also to the colour of the ink itself. Asomtavruli letter Ⴃ (doni) is often written with decoration effects of fish and birds. The "Curly" decorative form of Asomtavruli is also used where the letters are wattled or intermingled on each other, or the smaller letters are written inside other letters. It was mostly used for the headlines of the manuscripts or the books, although there are complete inscriptions which were written in the Asomtavruli "Curly" form only. The title of Gospel of Matthew in Asomtavruli "Curly" decorative form.

Handwriting of Asomtavruli

The following table shows the stroke direction of each Asomtavruli letter:

Form of Nuskhuri letters

Nuskhuri letters vary in height, with ascenders and descenders, and are slanted to the right. Letters have an angular shape, with a noticeable tendency to simplify the shapes they had in Asomtavruli. This enabled faster writing of manuscripts. → → Asomtavruli letters ⴍ (oni) and ⴣ (vie). A ligature of these letters produced a new letter in Nuskhuri, ⴓ uni. A colophon of King David IV in Nuskhuri. Note: Without proper font support, you may see question marks, boxes or other symbols instead of Nuskhuri letters.

Handwriting of Nuskhuri

The following table shows the stroke direction of each Nuskhuri letter:

Use of Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri today

Asomtavruli is used intensively in iconography, murals, and exterior design, especially in stone engravings. Georgian linguist Akaki Shanidze made an attempt in the 1950s to introduce Asomtavruli into the Mkhedruli script as capital letters to begin sentences, as in the Latin script, but it did not catch on. Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are officially used by the Georgian Orthodox Church alongside Mkhedruli. Patriarch Ilia II of Georgia called on people to use all three Georgian scripts.

Form of Mkhedruli letters

Mkhedruli inscriptions of the 10th and 11th centuries are characterized in rounding of angular shapes of Nuskhuri letters and making the complete outlines in all of its letters. Mkhedruli letters are written in the four-linear system, similar to Nuskhuri. Mkhedruli becomes more round and free in writing. It breaks the strict frame of the previous two alphabets, Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri. Mkhedruli letters begin to get coupled and more free calligraphy develops. Example of one of the oldest Mkhedruli-written texts found in the royal charter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia, 11th century. "Gurgen : King : of Kings : great-grandfather : of mine : Bagrat Curopalates" Coin of Queen Tamar of Georgia in Mkhedruli, 1187 AD.

Modern Georgian alphabet

The modern Georgian alphabet consists of 33 letters: ჱ ( "eighth e") /e̞j/ (roughly like the ⟨ay⟩ in pay), Svan /eː/ (like the e in egg in some American and Canadian accents), sometimes called "ei", was equivalent to ეჲ ey, as in ქრისტჱ ~ ქრისტეჲ kristʼey 'Christ'. ჲ ( ) /j/ (like the word "yeah"), appeared for the sound /j/ after a vowel (დედაჲ deday "mother", რაჲ ray "what"), but was dropped from the pronunciation and abolished from the spelling. Thus, ქრისტჱ ~ ქრისტეჲ kristʼey "Christ" is now written ქრისტე kristʼe. ჳ ( ) /wi~vi/ (like a cluster of the oo in too and the i in ill), Svan /w/ (like the w in water) came to be pronounced the same as ვი vi and was replaced by that sequence, as in სხჳსი > სხვისი skhvisi "others'". ჴ ( , qari, hari) (like the Arabic Qof) came to be pronounced the same as ხ (khani), and was replaced by it. e.g. ჴელმწიფე qelmtsʼipe became ხელმწიფე khelmtsʼipe "sovereign". ჵ ( ) /oː/ (somewhat like the American o in go) was used for the interjection hoi! and is now spelled ჰოი. Also used in Bats for the or sound. All but ჵ (hoe) continue to be used in the Svan alphabet; ჲ (hie) is used in the Mingrelian and Laz alphabets as well, for the y-sound . Several others were used for Abkhaz and Ossetian in the short time they were written in Mkhedruli script. ჶ (fi "phi") is used in Laz and Svan, and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian. It derives from the Greek letter Φ (phi). ჷ (shva "schwa"), also called yn, is used for the schwa sound in Svan and Mingrelian, and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian. ჸ (elifi "alif") is used in for the glottal stop in Svan and Mingrelian, as well as in the Tushetian dialect of Georgian. It is a reversed (q'ari). ჹ (turned gani) was once used for in evangelical literature in Dagestanian languages. ჼ (modifier nar) is used in Bats. It nasalizes the preceding vowel. ჺ (aini "ain") is occasionally used for in Bats. It derives from the Arabic letter (ʿayn) ჽ (aen) was used in the Ossetian language when it was written in the Georgian script. It was pronounced . ჾ (hard sign) was used in Abkhaz for velarization of the preceding consonant. ჿ (labial sign) was used in Abkhaz for labialization of the preceding consonant. ზ , ო , and ხ (zeni, oni, khani) are almost always written without the small tick at the end, while the handwritten form of ჯ (jani) often uses a vertical line, (sometimes with a taller ascender, or with a diagonal cross bar); even when it is written at a diagonal, the cross-bar is generally shorter than in print. Only four letters are x-height, with neither ascenders nor descenders: ა, თ, ი, ო. Thirteen have ascenders, like b or d in English: ბ, ზ, მ, ნ, პ, რ, ს, შ, ჩ, ძ, წ, ხ, ჰ An equal number have descenders, like p or q in English: გ, დ, ე, ვ, კ, ლ, ჟ, ტ, უ, ფ, ღ, ყ, ც Three letters have both ascenders and descenders, like þ in Old English: ქ, ჭ, and (in handwriting) ჯ. წ sometimes has both ascender and descender in handwriting.

Variation

for Rustaveli Avenue, showing variations in the name Rustaveli, with resembling . text, on a Georgian police car There is individual and stylistic variation in many of the letters. For example, the top circle of ზ ( ) and the top stroke of რ ( ) may go in the other direction than shown in the chart (that is, counter-clockwise starting at 3 o'clock, and upwards – see the external-link section for videos of people writing). Other common variants: გ ( ) may be written like ვ ( ) with a closed loop at the bottom. დ ( ) is frequently written with a simple loop at top, . კ , ც , and ძ ( , , ) are generally written with straight, vertical lines at the top, so that for example ც ( ) resembles a U with a dimple in the right side. ლ ( ) is frequently written with a single arc, , a little like a Greek rho symbol ⟨ ⟩. Even when all three are written, they're generally not all the same size, as they are in print, but rather riding on one wide arc like two dimples in it. Rarely, ო ( ) is written as a right angle, . რ ( ) is frequently written with one arc, , like a Latin . ტ ( ) often has a small circle with a tail hanging into the bowl, rather than two small circles as in print, or as an O with a straight vertical line intersecting the top. It may also be rotated a bit clockwise, with the small circles further to the right and not as close to the top. წ ( ) is generally written with a round bowl at the bottom, . Another variation features a triangular bowl. ჭ ( ) may be written without the hook at the top, and often with a completely straight vertical line. ჱ ( ) may be written without the loop, like a conflation of ს and ჰ. ჯ ( ) is sometimes written so that it looks like a hooked version of the Latin .

Similar letters

Several letters are similar and may be confused at first, especially in handwriting. For ვ (vini) and კ (k'ani), the distinguishing factor is whether the top is a full arc or a (more-or-less) vertical line. For ვ (vini) and გ (gani), the distinguishing factor is whether the bottom is an open curve or closed (a loop). The same is true of უ (uni) and შ (shini); in handwriting, the tops may look the same. Similarly ს (sani) and ხ (khani). For კ (k'ani) and პ (p'ari), the distinguishing factor is whether the letter is written below or above x-height, and whether it's written top-down or bottom-up. In Mtavruli, all letters have the same height and vertical positioning, so these differences disappear; as a result, Კ (k'ani) and Პ (p'ari) can only be distinguished by the length and slight curving of the upper stroke. For მ (mani) and ძ (dzili), the distinguishing factor is ძ (dzili) is written with a vertical top. A ligature of the Asomtavruli letters Ⴃ Ⴀ (და, da) "and" Nuskhuri, like Asomtavruli, is also often highly stylized. Writers readily formed ligatures and abbreviations for nomina sacra, including diacritics called karagma, which resemble titla. Because writing materials such as vellum were scarce and therefore precious, abbreviating was a practical measure widespread in manuscripts and hagiography by the 11th century. A Nuskhuri abbreviation of რომელი (romeli) "which" A Nuskhuri abbreviation of იესუ ქრისტე (iesu kriste) "Jesus Christ" Mkhedruli, in the 11th to 17th centuries, also came to employ digraphs to the point that they were obligatory, requiring adherence to a complex system. A Mkhedruli ligature of და (da) "and" Mkhedruli calligraphy of Prince Garsevan Chavchavadze and King Archil II In Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri punctuation, various combinations of dots were used as word dividers and to separate phrases, clauses, and paragraphs. In monumental inscriptions and manuscripts of 5th to 10th centuries, these were written as dashes, like −, = and =−. In the 10th century, clusters of one (·), two (:), three (჻) and six (჻჻) dots (later sometimes small circles) were introduced by Ephrem Mtsire to indicate increasing breaks in the text. One dot indicated a "minor stop" (presumably a simple word break), two dots marked or separated "special words", three dots for a "bigger stop" (such as the appositive name and title "the sovereign Alexander", below, or the title of the Gospel of Matthew, above), and six dots were to indicate the end of the sentence. Starting in the 11th century, marks resembling the apostrophe and comma came into use. An apostrophe was used to mark an interrogative word, and a comma appeared at the end of an interrogative sentence. From the 12th century on, these were replaced with the semicolon (the Greek question mark). In the 18th century, Patriarch Anton I of Georgia reformed the system again, with commas, single dots, and double dots used to mark "complete", "incomplete", and "final" sentences, respectively. For the most part, Georgian today uses the punctuation as in international usage of the Latin script. Signature of King Alexander II of Kakheti, with the divider ჴლმწიფე ჻ ალექსანდრე "The sovereign Alexander"

Use for other non-Kartvelian languages

Northwest Caucasian languages

Abkhaz until the 1940s. Circassian (historically), later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in the 20th century.

Northeast Caucasian languages

Ingush (historically), later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in the 20th century. Chechen (historically), later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in the 20th century. Avar (historically), later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in the 20th century. Other Northeast Caucasian languages; the Georgian script was used for writing North Caucasian and Dagestani languages in connection with Georgian missionary activities in the areas starting in the 18th century.

Indo-European languages

Ossetian until the 1940s. Persian; the 18th-century Persian translation of the Arabic Gospel is kept at the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi. Armenian; in the Armenian community in Tbilisi, the Georgian script was occasionally used for writing Armenian in the 18th and 19th centuries, and some samples of this kind of texts are kept at the Georgian National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi. Russian; in the collections of the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi there are also a few short poems in the Russian language written in Georgian script dating from the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

Turkic languages

Turkish; a Turkish Gospel, dictionary, poems, medical book dating from the 18th century. Azerbaijani; used by Azeris in Georgia. online.|class=skin-invert-image s ( ex: ლ(╹◡╹ლ) ). |class=skin-invert-image

Non-Unicode encodings

Mac OS Georgian is a character encoding created by Michael Everson for Georgian on classic Mac OS. It is an extended ASCII encoding, using the 128 code points from 0x80 through 0xFF to represent the characters of the Asomtavruli and Mkhedruli scripts plus a number of widely used symbols not included in 7-bit ASCII.

Gallery of the Script Examples

Gallery of Asomtavruli, Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli scripts. File:Bir el Qutt mosaic.png|Bir el Qutt inscriptions, ca. AD 430. File:Bolnisi inscriptions.png|Bas-relief from Bolnisi Sioni Cathedral, AD 493/494+ File:Doliskana Sumbat.jpg|Doliskana inscriptions, 10th century File:Ishkhani inscription.jpg|Ishkhani Church, 1006 File:Inscription of Nikortsminda.jpg|Nikortsminda Cathedral Church Inscriptions File:Barakoni2.jpg|Barakoni Church Inscriptions File:Georgian Manuscript Iadgari of Mikael Modrekili.jpg|Mikael Modrekili Iadgari (Hymn Book), 10th century File:საღმრთოჲ ჟამის წირვაჲ წმიდისა იოვანე ოქროპირისაჲ.jpg|Manuscript Scroll comprising the text of the Liturgy of John Chrysostom, Graz, UBG, MS 2058/5, 11th-12th centuries File:მცირე სჯულისკანონი.png|Minor Nomocanon, NCM, S-143, 11th century File:Ioane sineli, klemaqsi.png|John Climacus, The Ladder of Divine Ascent, copied by Nikrai, 1160 File:Jruchi MSS.jpg|Jruchi Gospels, 13th century File:Mokvi Bible (Page).jpg|Mokvi Gospel, NCA, Q-902, 1300 File:Descent into Hell. John the Evangelist. Vani Gospels A-1335, 210v, 12th c.jpg|Vani Four Gospels, NCA, A-1335; 12th-13th cc. File:Bagrat IV royal decree.jpg|Royal charter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia File:1072 წელი. მეფე გიორგი II-ის სიგელი შიომღვიმის მონასტრისადმი.jpg|Royal charter of King George II of Georgia File:დავით აღმაშენებლის ავტოგრაფი autograph of georgian king David IV aghmashenebeli.jpg|Royal charter of King David IV of Georgia File:გიორგი III-ის სიგელი 1170 წ..jpg|Royal charter of King George III of Georgia File:1202 წელი, ყმების შეწირულების სიგელი მეფე თამარისა შიო მღვიმის მონასტრისადმი.jpg|Royal charter of Queen Tamar of Georgia File:1222 წელი. ბრძანება ლაშა გიორგისა.jpg|Royal charter of King George IV of Georgia File:George the Brilliant royal charter.jpg|Royal charter of King George V of Georgia

Sources

External links

Gallery of Mkhedruli, Omniglot page on Mkhedruli which shows some stylistic variations mentioned above , produced by the Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia. Gives the sound of each letter, illustrates several fonts, and shows the stroke order of each letter. Lasha Kintsurashvili and Levan Chaganava, submissions to the 2014 International Exhibition of Calligraphy Reference grammar of Georgian by Howard Aronson (SEELRC, Duke University)    

Text derived from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=1376299864 under CC BY-SA 4.0; modifications have been made.

Names in other languages