Inquisition

before the Holy Office, by Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury An inquisition was a Catholic judicial procedure in which ecclesiastical judges could initiate, investigate and try cases in their jurisdiction. Popularly, the Inquisition became the name for various medieval and Reformation-era state-organized tribunals whose aim was to combat heresy, apostasy, blasphemy, witchcraft, and customs considered to be deviant, using this judicial procedure. Violence, isolation, certain torture or the threat of its application, have been used by inquisitions to extract confessions and denunciations. Inquisitions with the aim of combatting religious sedition (e.g. apostasy or heresy) had their start in the 12th-century Kingdom of France, particularly among the Cathars and the Waldensians. The inquisitorial courts from this time until the mid-15th century are together known as the Medieval Inquisition. Other banned groups investigated by medieval inquisitions, which primarily took place in France and Italy, include the Spiritual Franciscans, the Hussites, and the Beguines. Beginning in the 1250s, inquisitors were generally chosen from members of the Dominican Order, replacing the earlier practice of using local clergy as judges. Inquisitions also expanded to other European countries, resulting in the Spanish Inquisition and the Portuguese Inquisition.…

before the Holy Office, by Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury An inquisition was a Catholic judicial procedure in which ecclesiastical judges could initiate, investigate and try cases in their jurisdiction. Popularly, the Inquisition became the name for various medieval and Reformation-era state-organized tribunals whose aim was to combat heresy, apostasy, blasphemy, witchcraft, and customs considered to be deviant, using this judicial procedure. Violence, isolation, certain torture or the threat of its application, have been used by inquisitions to extract confessions and denunciations. Inquisitions with the aim of combatting religious sedition (e.g. apostasy or heresy) had their start in the 12th-century Kingdom of France, particularly among the Cathars and the Waldensians. The inquisitorial courts from this time until the mid-15th century are together known as the Medieval Inquisition. Other banned groups investigated by medieval inquisitions, which primarily took place in France and Italy, include the Spiritual Franciscans, the Hussites, and the Beguines. Beginning in the 1250s, inquisitors were generally chosen from members of the Dominican Order, replacing the earlier practice of using local clergy as judges. Inquisitions also expanded to other European countries, resulting in the Spanish Inquisition and the Portuguese Inquisition. The Spanish and Portuguese inquisitions often focused on the New Christians or Conversos (former Jews who converted to Christianity to avoid antisemitic regulations and persecution), the Marranos (people who were forced to abandon Judaism against their will by violence and threats of expulsion), and on the Moriscos (Muslims who had been forced to convert to Catholicism), as a result of suspicions that they had secretly maintained or reverted to their previous religions, as well as the fear of possible rebellions, as had occurred in previous times (such as the First and Second Morisco Rebellions). Spain and Portugal also operated inquisitorial courts not only in Europe, but also throughout their empires: the Goa Inquisition, the Peruvian Inquisition, and the Mexican Inquisition, among others. Inquisitions conducted in the Papal States were known as the Roman Inquisition. The scope of the inquisitions grew significantly in response to the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation. In 1542, a putative governing institution, the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition was created. With the exception of the Papal States, ecclessiastical inquisition courts were abolished in the early 19th century, after the Napoleonic Wars in Europe and the Spanish American wars of independence in the Americas. The papal institution survived as part of the Roman Curia, although it underwent a series of name and focus changes, now part of the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith. ==Legal background== in Birgu, Malta. Eymeric's manual recommends that the accused be seated on a backless low bench. In the high medieval period, various forms of ad hoc or non-evidence-based trials occurred: trial by ordeal (trial by combat, trial by fire, trial by water, etc.), and compurgation (character witnesses), especially in teutonic cultures. In tenth and eleventh centuries, attempts were made to re-establish safer aspects of Roman and Hebrew law following the discovery of major ancient Roman legal texts. By the late tenth century, the new University of Bologna was training lawyers in Roman legal jurisprudence, and other universities followed. An inquisitorial procedure was adopted for capital crimes, first in ecclesiastical courts run by clergy as mandated by the Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215), and then progressively also in secular courts as well. Many countries still retain an inquisitorial legal system, as distinct from e.g., an adversarial or arbitrated one. In the revived legal system, for capital crimes, circumstantial evidence was not enough to convict: the testimony of two or more witnesses was now necessary, which increased the necessity of obtaining a confession. This in turn promoted the uptake of threats and application of torture, akin to the "enhanced interrogation techniques" or the illegal third degree police techniques, to collaborate information for investigations for both secular and ecclesiastical courts. Secular and ecclesiastical legal theorists of the Late Middle Ages developed a variety of rules concerning when torture was used, how much, what it was unsafe for, who was allowed to do it, what medical supervision was necessary, etc. Because it belonged to the investigation phase, it was frequently not documented outside the Inquisition. Historian Henry A. Kelly concludes that inquisition was "a brilliant and much-needed innovation in trial procedure, instituted by the greatest lawyer-pope of the Middle Ages" and that later "abusive practices" should be identified as a perversion of the original inquisitorial process. ==Terminology== ===Inquisition=== The term "inquisition" comes from the Medieval Latin word , which described a court process based on Roman law, which came back into use during the Late Middle Ages. It was a new and less arbitrary form of trial that replaced the and process, which required a denouncer or used an adversarial process, the most unjust being trial by ordeal and the secular Germanic trial by combat. Since that time, the English term "Inquisition" is popularly applied to any one of the regional tribunals or later national institutions that worked against heretics or other offenders against the canon law of the Catholic Church. Although the term "Inquisition" is usually applied to ecclesiastical courts of the Catholic Church, in the Middle Ages it properly referred to an organized judicial process. ===Inquisitor=== Inquisitors 'were called such because they applied a judicial technique known as inquisitio, which could be translated as "inquiry" or "inquest". "The Inquisition" usually refers to specific regional tribunals authorized to concern themselves with the heretical behaviour of Catholic adherents or converts (including forced converts). As with sedition inquisitions, heresy inquisitions were supposed to use the standard inquisition procedures: these included that the defendant must be informed of the charges, has a right to a lawyer, and a right of appeal (to the Pope). The inquisitor could only start a heresy proceeding if there was some broad public opinion of the "infamy" of the defendant (rather than a formal denunciation or accusation) to prevent fishing, or charging for private opinions; however, such inquisitions could proceed with minimal distraction by lawyers, the identities of witnesses were protected, tainted witnesses were allowed, and once found guilty of heresy there was no right to a lawyer. Inquisitors did not all follow these rules scrupulously, notably from the late 1300s: many inquisitors had theological, not legal, training. ==Scope== Theoretically, inquisitions, as a church court, had no jurisdiction over Muslims and Jews as such. Despite several exceptions, like the infamous example of the Holy Child of La Guardia, the Inquisition was concerned mainly with the heretical behaviour of Catholic adherents or converts (including forced converts). ===Controversy and revisionism=== The opening of Spanish and Roman archives over the last 50 years has caused some historians to revise their understanding of the Inquisition, some to the extent of viewing previous views as "a body of legends and myths". It has also been suggested that some instruments of torture, like "the pear of anguish," were not invented until the 16th century or later. Some of these revisions from scholars may be due to their own subjective religion, the historic erasure of crimes committed by the church, or erasure of minority lives and voices. Many of the sources that discredit or undermine the torture are written by practicing Catholics. One example is Reverend Brian Van Hove, S.J., who suggests that the inquisition is overblown in popular imagination. Van Hove writes This perspective fails to address that the majority of inquisitions led to torture, mass excommunications, and burnings which incited fear and submission in the general population, creating lasting effects on Europe. The majority of historical scholars continue to see the inquisition as an example of extremist religious leaders enforcing order and rooting out paganism through false accusations and inordinate violence. ==Sentences== When a suspect was convicted of "wilful, unrepentant" heresy, canon law required the inquisitorial tribunal to hand the person over to secular authorities for final sentencing. A secular magistrate, the "secular arm", would then determine the penalty based on local law. Those local laws included proscriptions against certain religious crimes, and the punishments included death by burning in regions where the secular law equated persistent heresy with sedition. Thus the inquisitors generally knew the expected fate of anyone so remanded. The "secular arm" didn't have access to the trial record of the defendants, only declared and executed the sentences and was obliged to do so on pain of heresy and excommunication. While the notional purpose of the trial itself was for the salvation of the individual soul, allegedly by persuasion, according to the 1578 edition of the (a standard manual for inquisitions) the penalties themselves were preventative not retributive, thought to spread an example by terror: "... for punishment does not take place primarily and for the correction and good of the person punished, but for the public good in order that others may become terrified and weaned away from the evils they would commit". ===Statistics=== Beginning in the 19th century, historians have gradually compiled statistics drawn from the surviving court records, from which estimates have been calculated by adjusting the recorded number of convictions by the average rate of document loss for each time period. Gustav Henningsen and Jaime Contreras studied the records of the Spanish Inquisition, which list 44,674 cases of which 826 resulted in executions in person and 778 in effigy (i.e., a straw dummy was burned in place of the person). William Monter estimated there were 1,000 executions in Spain between 1530 and 1630, and 250 between 1630 and 1730. Jean-Pierre Dedieu studied the records of Toledo's tribunal, which put 12,000 people on trial. For the period prior to 1530, Henry Kamen estimated there were about 2,000 executions in all of Spain's tribunals. ==Origin== Before the 12th century, the Catholic Church suppressed what they believed to be heresy, usually through a system of ecclesiastical proscription or imprisonment, but without using torture, and seldom resorting to executions. Punishments of the latter sort were opposed by a number of clergymen and theologians, although some countries punished heresy with the death penalty. Pope Siricius, Ambrose of Milan, and Martin of Tours protested against the execution of Priscillian, largely as an undue interference in ecclesiastical discipline by a civil tribunal. Though widely viewed as a heretic, Priscillian was executed as a sorcerer. Ambrose refused to give any recognition to Ithacius of Ossonuba, "not wishing to have anything to do with bishops who had sent heretics to their death". In the 12th century, to counter the spread of Catharism and other heresies, prosecution of heretics became more frequent. The Church charged councils composed of bishops and archbishops with establishing inquisitions (the Episcopal Inquisition). Pope Lucius III issued the bull Ad Abolendam (1184¹), which condemned heresy as contumacy toward ecclesiastical authority. The bull Vergentis in Senium in 1199 stipulated that heresy would be considered, in terms of punishment, equal to treason (Lèse-majesté), and the punishment would be imposed also on the descendants of the condemned. The first Inquisition was temporarily established in Languedoc (south of France) in 1184. The murder of Pope Innocent III's papal legate Pierre de Castelnau by Cathars in 1208 sparked the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229¹). The Inquisition was permanently established in 1229 (Council of Toulouse), run largely by the Dominicans in Rome and later at Carcassonne in Languedoc. In 1252, the Papal Bull Ad extirpanda, following another assassination by Cathars, charged the head of state with funding and selecting inquisitors from monastic orders; this caused friction by establishing a competitive court to the Bishop's courts. ==Medieval Inquisitions== Historians use the term "Medieval Inquisition" to describe the various inquisitions that started around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisitions (1184–1230s) and later the Papal Inquisitions (1230s). These inquisitions responded to large popular movements throughout Europe considered apostate or heretical to Christianity, in particular the Cathars in southern France and the Waldensians in both southern France and northern Italy. Other inquisitions followed after these first inquisition movements. The legal basis for some inquisitorial activity came from Pope Innocent IV's papal bull Ad extirpanda of 1252, which authorized the use of tortures in certain circumstances by inquisitors for eliciting confessions and denunciations from heretics. By 1256 Alexander IV's rescripts Ut negotium allowed certain anti-Cathar inquisitors to absolve each other if the torture (accidentally) resulted in shedding of blood, forbidden to priests. In the 13th century, Pope Gregory IX (reigned 1227–1241) assigned the duty of carrying out inquisitions to the Dominican Order and Franciscan Order. By the end of the Middle Ages, England and Castile were the only large western nations without a papal inquisition. Most inquisitors were friars who taught theology and/or law in the universities. They used inquisitorial procedures, a common legal practice adapted from the earlier Ancient Roman court procedures. They judged heresy along with bishops and groups of "assessors" (clergy serving in a role that was roughly analogous to a jury or legal advisers), using the local authorities to establish a tribunal and to prosecute heretics. After 1200, a Grand Inquisitor headed but did not control each regional Inquisition. Grand Inquisitions persisted until the mid 19th century. ===Inquisition in Medieval Spain=== Portugal and Spain in the late Middle Ages consisted largely of multicultural territories of Muslim and Jewish influence, reconquered from Islamic control, and the new Christian authorities could not assume that all their subjects would suddenly become and remain orthodox Catholics. So the Inquisition in Iberia, in the lands of the Reconquista counties and kingdoms like León, Castile, and Aragon, had a special socio-political basis as well as more fundamental religious motives. In some parts of Spain towards the end of the 14th century, there was a wave of violent anti-Judaism, encouraged by the preaching of Ferrand Martínez, Archdeacon of Écija. In the massacre of 1391 in Seville, hundreds of Jews were killed, and the synagogue was completely destroyed. The number of people killed was also high in other cities, such as Córdoba, Valencia, and Barcelona. One of the consequences of these pogroms was the mass conversion of thousands of surviving Jews. Forced baptism was contrary to the law of the Catholic Church, and theoretically anybody who had been forcibly baptized could legally return to Judaism; however, this was very narrowly interpreted. Legal definitions of the time theoretically acknowledged that a forced baptism was not a valid sacrament, but confined this to cases where it was literally administered by physical force. A person who had consented to baptism under threat of death or serious injury was still regarded as a voluntary convert, and accordingly forbidden to revert to Judaism. After the public violence, many of the converted "felt it safer to remain in their new religion". Thus, after 1391, a new social group appeared and were referred to as conversos or New Christians. ==Early modern European history== With the sharpening of debate and of conflict between the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, Protestant societies came to see/use the Inquisition as a terrifying "other", while staunch Catholics regarded the Holy Office as a necessary bulwark against the spread of reprehensible heresies. Since the beginning of the most serious heretic groups, like the Cathars or the Waldensians, they were soon accused of the most fantastic behavior, like having wild sexual orgies, eating babies, copulating with demons, worshipping the Devil. ===Spanish Inquisition=== , Saint Dominic Guzmán presiding over an Auto da fe (c. 1495). (Portuguese for "Act of Faith"). King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile established the Spanish Inquisition in 1478¹ to be overseen by 14 local Tribunals. In contrast to the previous inquisitions, it operated completely under royal Christian authority, though staffed by clergy and orders, and independently of the Holy See. It operated first in Spain, then in Portugal, and eventually in most Spanish colonies and territories, which included the Canary Islands, the Kingdom of Sicily, and all Spanish possessions in North, Central, and South America. It primarily focused upon forced converts from Islam (Moriscos, conversos, and "secret Moors") and from Judaism (conversos, Crypto-Jews, and Marranos)—both groups which continued to reside in Spain and who came under suspicion of either continuing to adhere to their old religion or of having fallen back into it. Under the Alhambra Decree of 1492, all Jews who had not converted were expelled from Spain in 1492. Tomás de Torquemada was chosen to be the first Grand Inquisitor, to oversee the Inquisition; and it is estimated that up to 2,000 Jews were burned at the stake during the reign of Queen Isabella. All Muslims were ordered to convert in different stages starting in 1507 and culminating in 1614, when Muslims who had previously converted were now expelled. Those who converted or simply remained after the relevant edict became nominally and legally Catholics, and thus subject to the Inquisition. ====Inquisition in the Spanish overseas empire==== In 1569, King Philip II of Spain set up three tribunals in the Americas (each formally titled Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición): one in Mexico, one in Cartagena de Indias (in modern-day Colombia), and one in Peru. The Mexican office administered Mexico (central and southeastern Mexico), Nueva Galicia (northern and western Mexico), the Audiencias of Guatemala (Guatemala, Chiapas, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica), and the Spanish East Indies. The Peruvian Inquisition, based in Lima, administered all the Spanish territories in South America and Panama. The Spanish Inquisition was formerly ended by proclamation on 15 July 1834 by Maria Cristina de Bourbon, then queen regent of Spain, also known as Maria Cristina of Naples and Sicily. ===Portuguese Inquisition=== The Portuguese Inquisition formally started in Portugal in 1536 at the request of King João III. Manuel I had asked Pope Leo X for the installation of the Inquisition in 1515, but only after his death in 1521 did Pope Paul III acquiesce. At its head stood a Grande Inquisidor, or General Inquisitor, named by the Pope but selected by the Crown, and always from within the royal family. Jews who fled Spain and the Spanish Inquisition now found themselves subject to the Inquisition in Portugal. The Portuguese Inquisition principally focused upon the Jews from Spain, the Sephardi Jews, who had fled or whom the state had forced to convert to Christianity. The Portuguese Inquisition held its first auto-da-fé in 1540. The Portuguese inquisitors mostly focused upon the Jewish New Christians (i.e. conversos or marranos). The Portuguese Inquisition expanded its scope of operations from Portugal to its colonial possessions, including Brazil, Cape Verde, and Goa. In the colonies, it continued as a religious court, investigating and trying cases of breaches of the tenets of orthodox Catholicism until 1821. King João III (reigned 1521–57) extended the activity of the courts to cover censorship, divination, witchcraft, and bigamy. Originally oriented for a religious action, the Inquisition exerted an influence over almost every aspect of Portuguese society: political, cultural, and social. According to Henry Charles Lea, between 1540 and 1794, tribunals in Lisbon, Porto, Coimbra, and Évora resulted in the burning of 1,175 persons, the burning of another 633 in effigy, and the penancing of 29,590. Documentation of 15 out of 689 autos-da-fé has disappeared, so these numbers may slightly understate the activity. ====Inquisition in the Portuguese overseas empire==== ===Roman Inquisition=== With the Protestant Reformation, Catholic authorities became much more ready to suspect heresy in any new ideas, including those of Renaissance humanism, previously strongly supported by many at the top of the Church hierarchy. The extirpation of heretics became a much broader and more complex enterprise, complicated by the politics of territorial Protestant powers, especially in northern Europe. The Catholic Church could no longer exercise direct influence in the politics and justice-systems of lands that officially adopted Protestantism. As a result, war (the French Wars of Religion, the Thirty Years' War), massacre (the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre), and the missional, as well as propaganda work, such as Sacra congregatio de propaganda fide, of the Catholic Counter-Reformation came to play larger roles in these circumstances, and the Roman law type of a "judicial" approach to heresy represented by the Inquisition became less important overall. In 1542 Pope Paul III established the Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition as a permanent congregation staffed with cardinals and other officials. It had the tasks of maintaining and defending the integrity of the faith and of examining and proscribing errors and false doctrines; it thus became the supervisory body of local Inquisitions. A famous case tried by the Roman Inquisition was that of Galileo Galilei in 1633. The penances and sentences for those who confessed or were found guilty were pronounced together in a public ceremony at the end of all the processes. This was the sermo generalis or auto-da-fé. Penances (not matters for the civil authorities) might consist of pilgrimages, a public scourging, a fine, or the wearing of a cross. The wearing of two tongues of red or other brightly colored cloth, sewn onto an outer garment in an "X" pattern, marked those who were under investigation. The penalties in serious cases were confiscation of property by the Inquisition or imprisonment. This led to the possibility of false charges to enable confiscation being made against those over a certain income, particularly rich marranos. Following the French invasion of 1798, the new authorities sent 3,000 chests containing over 100,000 Inquisition documents to France from Rome. ===In France=== Between 1657 and 1659, twenty-two alleged witches were burned on the orders of the inquisitor Pierre Symard in the province of Franche-Comté, then part of the Empire. The inquisitorial tribunal in papally-ruled Avignon, established in 1541¹, passed 855 death sentences, almost all of them (818) in the years 1566–1574, but the vast majority of them were pronounced in absentia. ===Witch-hunts=== The fierce denunciation and persecution of supposed sorceresses that characterized the cruel witchhunts of a later age were not generally found in the first thirteen hundred years of the Christian era. While belief in witchcraft, and persecutions directed at or excused by it, were widespread in pre-Christian Europe, and reflected in old Germanic law, the growing influence of the Church in the early medieval era in pagan areas resulted in the revocation of these laws in many places, bringing an end to the traditional witch hunts. Throughout the medieval era, mainstream Christian teaching had disputed the existence of witches and denied any power to witchcraft, condemning it as pagan superstition. Black magic practitioners were generally dealt with through confession, repentance, and charitable work assigned as penance. In 1258, Pope Alexander IV ruled that inquisitors should limit their involvement to those cases in which there was some clear presumption of heretical belief but slowly this vision changed. The prosecution of witchcraft generally became more prominent in the late medieval and Renaissance era, perhaps driven partly by the upheavals of the era – the Black Death, the Hundred Years War, and a gradual cooling of the climate that modern scientists call the Little Ice Age (between about the 15th and 19th centuries). Witches were sometimes blamed. Since the years of most intense witch-hunting largely coincide with the age of the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation, some historians point to the influence of the Reformation on the European witch-hunt; however, witch-hunting began almost one hundred years before Luther's ninety-five theses. ===Assassinations=== , Austria In some cases, heretics and other targets did not hesitate to attempt to murder the inquisitors, or destroy its voluminous archives, because they had much to lose in the face of an inquisitorial investigation: their freedom, their property, their lives. The much hated Inquisitor Konrad von Marburg, who also initiated inquisition trials against nobles, was murdered in 1233 by six mounted men on an open country road on the way to Marburg. In 1242, a Cathar group armed with axes entered the castle of the town of Avignonet (southern France) and murdered the inquisitors Guillaume Arnaud and Étienne de Saint-Thibéry. In 1252, the inquisitor Peter of Verona was killed by Cathars. Eleven months after his assassination, he was made a Catholic saint, the quickest canonization in history. As Christine Caldwell Ames writes, "Inquisition changed what it meant to be a martyr, to be holy, and to be an imitator of Christ." In 1395 near Steyr, where the inquisitor Petrus Zwicker was quartered with associates, an assassination attempt on him failed: someone had tried to set fire to the place and burn him alive. ===Clergy opposition=== Opposition to Inquisition power and abuses sometimes came from within the clergy: including friars, priests and bishops. During French Inquisition, a Franciscan friar, Bernard Délicieux, opposed the actions of the Inquisition in Languedoc. The infamous Bernard Gui presented him as the commander-in-chief of the "iniquitous army" against the Dominicans and the Inquisition. Délicieux alleged the Inquisitiors were pursuing innocent Catholics for heresy, trying to destroy their towns. He stated that the methods of the inquisition would have condemned even Peter and Paul as heretics if they appeared before the inquisitors. Délicieux later became one more victim of the Inquisition for his criticism. In 1317, Pope John XXII called him and other Franciscan Spirituals to Avignon, and he was arrested, questioned, and tortured by the Inquisition. In 1319, he was found guilty and sentenced to life in prison. Fragile and old, he died shortly thereafter. In Spain, several bishops contended with inquisitorial tribunals. In 1532, the Archbishop of Toledo Alonso III Fonseca had to ransom converso Juan de Vergara (Cisneros' Latin secretary) from Spanish inquisitors. Fonseca had previously rescued Ignatius of Loyola from them. Far from being a monolithic institution, sometimes the tribunals threatened individuals protected by the Inquisitor-General, such as with the Inquisitor General Alonso Manrique de Lara and Erasmus. In Portugal, Father António Vieira (1608–1697), himself a Jesuit, philosopher, writer and orator, was one of the most important opponents of the Inquisition. Arrested by the Inquisition for "heretical, reckless, ill-sounding and scandalous propositions" in October 1665, was imprisoned until December 1667. Under the Inquisitorial sentence, he was forbidden to teach, write or preach. Only perhaps Vieira's prestige, his intelligence and his support among members of the royal family saved him from greater consequences. Father Vieira led an anti-inquisition movement in Rome, where he spent six years. In addition to his humanitarian objections, he also had others: he realised that a mercantile middle class was being attacked that would be sorely missed in the country's economic development. He is believed to have been the author of the anonymous writing Notícias Recônditas do Modo de Proceder a Inquisição de Portugal com os seus Presos, which reveals a great deal about the inner workings of the Inquisitorial mechanism and which he delivered to Pope Clement X in favour of the cause of the persecuted of the Inquisition. The Inquisition was suspended by Clement X between 1674 and 1681. ===Documents and works=== Directorium Inquisitorum Histoire de l'Inquisition en France Malleus Maleficarum ===Notable inquisitors=== Grand Inquisitor Konrad von Marburg Tomás de Torquemada Bernard Gui ===Notable cases=== Galileo affair Execution of Giordano Bruno Trial of Joan of Arc Edgardo Mortara Basque witch trials Caterina Tarongí Rosa Egipcíaca ===Repentance=== List of apologies made by Pope John Paul II ==References== ==Bibliography== Carroll, Warren H., Isabel: the Catholic Queen Front Royal, Virginia, 1991 (Christendom Press) Given, James B, Inquisition and Medieval Society (Cornell University Press, 2001) Walsh, William Thomas, Characters of the Inquisition (TAN Books and Publishers, Inc, 1940/97); ==External links== The book Directorium Inquisitorum (1587 edition) in Latin Malleus Maleficarum (a 1928 edition) in English and Latin – Publisher J. Rodker Frequently Asked Questions About the Inquisition by James Hannam Jewish Virtual Library on the Spanish Inquisition

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