Lisp

*Lisp (or StarLisp) is a programming language, a dialect of the language Lisp. It was conceived of in 1985 by two employees of the Thinking Machines Corporation, Cliff Lasser and Steve Omohundro, as a way to provide an efficient yet high-level language for programming the nascent Connection Machine (CM).

A lisp is a speech impairment in which a person misarticulates sibilants ( , , , , , , , ). These misarticulations often result in unclear speech in languages with phonemic sibilants. ==Types== A frontal lisp occurs when the tongue is placed anterior to the target. Interdental lisping is produced when the tip of the tongue protrudes between the front teeth and dentalized lisping is produced when the tip of the tongue just touches the front teeth. The transcription in the International Phonetic Alphabet for interdental sibilants is and and for simple dental sibilants is and . When a fronted lisp does not have a sibilant quality, due to lack of a grooved articulation, the IPA transcription would be or variants thereof. A occurs when the and sounds are produced with air-flow over the sides of the tongue. It is also called "slushy ess" or a "slushy lisp" in part due to its wet, spitty sound. The symbols for these lateralised sounds in the extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for disordered speech are and . A occurs when part or the entire air stream is directed through the nasal cavity. The transcription for sibilants with nasal frication in the extensions to the IPA is and ; simple nasal fricatives are and . A strident lisp results in a high-frequency whistle or hissing sound caused by stream passing between the tongue and the hard surface. In the extensions to the IPA, whistled sibilants are transcribed and . A palatal lisp is where the speaker attempts to make a sibilant while the middle of the tongue is in contact with the soft palate, or with a posterior articulation of the sibilant. The latter may be transcribed and , and , or the like. ==Causes== Successful treatments have shown that causes are functional rather than physical: that is, most lisps are caused by errors in tongue placement or density of the tongue within the mouth rather than caused by any injury or congenital or acquired deformity to the mouth. The most frequently discussed of these problems is tongue thrust in which the tongue protrudes beyond the front teeth. This protrusion affects speech as well as swallowing and can lead to lisping. Ankyloglossia or tongue tie can also be responsible for lisps in children — however, it is unclear whether these deficiencies are caused by the tongue tie itself or the muscle weakness following the correction of the tongue tie. Overbites and underbites may also contribute to non lingual lisping. Temporary lisps can be caused by dental work, excess saliva, mouthguards, dental appliances such as dentures, dental braces, or retainers or by swollen or bruised tongues. ==Treatment== ==See also== Rhotacism (speech impediment), 'lisp' on the letter R Gay male speech Speech sound disorder ==References== Caroline Bowen (23 November 2011) "Lisping - When /s/ and /z/ are hard to say", speech-language-therapy dot com fr:Sigmatisme

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