Personal computer

personal computer personal computer A personal computer (PC), or simply computer, is a computer designed for personal use. It is typically used for tasks such as word processing, web browsing, email, file management, spreadsheets, and video calling. Unlike large, costly minicomputers and mainframes, time-sharing by many people at the same time is not used with personal computers. Personal computers are designed to be operated directly by an end user, rather than by a computer expert, administrator, company or technician. The term "home computer" has also been used, primarily in the late 1970s and 1980s. The advent of personal computers and the concurrent Digital Revolution have significantly affected the lives of people. In 1981¹, the IBM Personal Computer was released, and IBM PC compatibles soon followed; the term PC came to be used historically to refer exclusively to these computers. Other personal computers introduced at around the same time, such as the Apple II, TRS-80, and Commodore 64, tended to be called home computers.…

personal computer]] personal computer]] A personal computer (PC), or simply computer, is a computer designed for personal use. It is typically used for tasks such as word processing, web browsing, email, file management, spreadsheets, and video calling. Unlike large, costly minicomputers and mainframes, time-sharing by many people at the same time is not used with personal computers. Personal computers are designed to be operated directly by an end user, rather than by a computer expert, administrator, company or technician. The term "home computer" has also been used, primarily in the late 1970s and 1980s. The advent of personal computers and the concurrent Digital Revolution have significantly affected the lives of people. In 1981, the IBM Personal Computer was released, and IBM PC compatibles soon followed; the term PC came to be used historically to refer exclusively to these computers. Other personal computers introduced at around the same time, such as the Apple II, TRS-80, and Commodore 64, tended to be called home computers. Since the early 1990s, computers running the "Wintel" software–hardware platform stack (a Microsoft operating system, initially MS-DOS and later Windows, on a CPU based on Intel's x86 architecture) came to dominate the personal computer market, and the term "PC" most often refers to the Wintel platform, or to Windows PCs in general (regardless of processor architecture). Alternatives to Windows, which tend to be referred to as "personal computers" but not "PCs", occupy a minority share of the market; they are predominantly Unix-based or Unix-like operating systems, such as macOS on Apple's Mac platform, and Linux, including the Linux-derived ChromeOS, though most distributions are free and open-source. Other notable platforms until the 1990s were the Amiga, Atari ST, and the PC-98 line. == Terminology == The term 'PC' is an initialism for 'personal computer'. While the IBM Personal Computer incorporated the designation into its model name, the term originally described personal computers of any brand. In some contexts, 'PC' is used to contrast with the Mac computer. Apple products were all personal computers but not branded as "PCs". In 1995, a CBS segment on the growing popularity of personal computing reported: "For many newcomers PC stands for Pain and Confusion." ===Origins=== In the history of computing, early experimental machines could be operated by a single attendant. For example, ENIAC which became operational in 1946 could be run by a single, albeit highly trained, person. This mode pre-dated the batch programming, or time-sharing modes with multiple users connected through terminals to mainframe computers. Computers intended for laboratory, instrumentation, or engineering purposes were built, and could be operated by one person in an interactive fashion. Examples include such systems as the Bendix G15 and LGP-30 of 1956, and the Soviet MIR series of computers developed from 1965 to 1969. By the early 1970s, people in academic or research institutions had the opportunity for single-person use of a computer system in interactive mode for extended durations, although these systems would still have been too expensive to be owned by a single person. ===1960s=== The personal computer was made possible by major advances in semiconductor technology. In 1959, the silicon integrated circuit (IC) chip was developed by Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor, and the metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) transistor was developed by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs. The MOS integrated circuit was commercialized by RCA in 1964, and then the silicon-gate MOS integrated circuit was developed by Federico Faggin at Fairchild in 1968. Faggin later used silicon-gate MOS technology to develop the first single-chip microprocessor, the Intel 4004, in 1971. The first microcomputers, based on microprocessors, were developed during the early 1970s. Widespread commercial availability of microprocessors, from the mid-1970s onwards, made computers cheap enough for small businesses and individuals to own. In what was later to be called the Mother of All Demos, SRI researcher Douglas Engelbart in 1968 gave a preview of features that would later become staples of personal computers: e-mail, hypertext, word processing, video conferencing, and the mouse. The demonstration required technical support staff and a mainframe time-sharing computer that were far too costly for individual business use at the time. ===1970s=== Early personal computers were very expensive. Many of these were built in TTL logic, so technically not microcomputers in many cases. However, by the mid-1970s, some microprocessor-based personal computers started to be sold in kit form, albeit in limited volumes, and of interest mostly to hobbyists and technicians. Programming could be done via toggle switches to enter instructions, and output was provided by front panel lamps. More practical use required adding a serial computer terminal or internal expansion cards for a keyboard and a computer display, as well as for peripherals such as disk drives and printers. Micral N was the earliest commercial, non-kit microcomputer based on a microprocessor, the Intel 8008. It was built starting in 1972, and a few hundred units were sold. This had been preceded by the Datapoint 2200 in 1970, for which the Intel 8008 had been commissioned, though not accepted for use. The CPU design implemented in the Datapoint 2200 became the basis for x86 architecture used in the original IBM PC and its descendants. In 1973, the IBM Los Gatos Scientific Center developed a portable computer prototype called SCAMP (Special Computer APL Machine Portable) based on the IBM PALM processor with a Philips compact cassette drive, small CRT, and full function keyboard. SCAMP emulated an IBM 1130 minicomputer in order to run APL/1130. In 1973, APL was generally available only on mainframe computers, and most desktop sized microcomputers such as the Wang 2200 or HP 9800 offered only BASIC. Because SCAMP was the first to emulate APL/1130 performance on a portable, single user computer, PC Magazine in 1983 designated SCAMP a "revolutionary concept" and "the world's first personal computer". This seminal, single user portable computer now resides in the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.. Successful demonstrations of the 1973 SCAMP prototype led to the IBM 5100 portable microcomputer launched in 1975 with the ability to be programmed in both APL and BASIC for engineers, analysts, statisticians, and other business problem-solvers. In the late 1960s such a machine would have been nearly as large as two desks and would have weighed about half a ton. Another desktop portable APL machine, the MCM/70, created by Mers Kutt's company Micro Computer Machines Inc., was demonstrated in 1973 and shipped in 1974. Priced between $3,500 and $9,800 depending on the configuration, the MCM/70 was the first personal desktop microcomputer. It used the Intel 8008 processor, and featured a 51-key keyboard and a Burroughs Self-Scan plasma display panel that could display 32 characters per line. It ran the AVS/EASY operating system, and had the capacity for 8 kilobytes of RAM and 14 kilobytes of ROM. Users could optionally add cassette drives that provided more than 100 kilobytes of external storage. A seminal step in personal computing was the 1973 Xerox Alto, developed at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). It had a graphical user interface (GUI) which later served as inspiration for Apple's Macintosh, and Microsoft's Windows operating system. The Alto was a demonstration project, not commercialized, as the parts were too expensive to be affordable. Also in 1973 Hewlett Packard 9100A introduced fully BASIC programmable microcomputers that fit entirely on top of a desk, including a keyboard, a small one-line display, and printer. The Wang 2200 microcomputer of 1973 had a full-size cathode ray tube (CRT) and cassette tape storage. These were generally expensive specialized computers sold for business or scientific uses. , one of the first personal computers]] 1974 saw the introduction of what is considered by many to be the first true personal computer, the Altair 8800 created by Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS). Based on the 8-bit Intel 8080 Microprocessor, the Altair is widely recognized as the spark that ignited the microcomputer revolution as the first commercially successful personal computer. The computer bus designed for the Altair was to become a de facto standard in the form of the S-100 bus, and the first programming language for the machine was Microsoft's founding product, Altair BASIC. In 1976, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak sold the Apple I computer circuit board, which was fully prepared and contained about 30 chips. The Apple I computer differed from the other kit-style hobby computers of the era. At the request of Paul Terrell, owner of the Byte Shop, Jobs and Wozniak were given their first purchase order, for 50 Apple I computers, only if the computers were assembled and tested and not a kit computer. Terrell wanted to have computers to sell to a wide range of users, not just experienced electronics hobbyists who had the soldering skills to assemble a computer kit. The Apple I as delivered was still technically a kit computer, as it did not have a power supply, case, or keyboard when it was delivered to the Byte Shop. The first successfully mass-marketed personal computer to be announced was the Commodore PET after being revealed in January 1977. However, it was back-ordered and not available until later that year. Three months later (April), the Apple II (usually referred to as the Apple) was announced with the first units being shipped 10 June 1977, and the TRS-80 from Tandy Corporation / Tandy Radio Shack following in August 1977, which sold over 100,000 units during its lifetime. Together, especially in the North American market, these 3 machines were referred to as the "1977 trinity". Mass-market, ready-assembled computers had arrived, and allowed a wider range of people to use computers, focusing more on software applications and less on development of the processor hardware. In 1977 the Heath company introduced personal computer kits known as Heathkits, starting with the Heathkit H8, followed by the Heathkit H89 in late 1979. With the purchase of the Heathkit H8 you would obtain the chassis and CPU card to assemble yourself, additional hardware such as the H8-1 memory board that contained 4k of RAM could also be purchased in order to run software. The Heathkit H11 model was released in 1978¹ and was one of the first 16-bit personal computers; however, due to its high retail cost of $1,295 was discontinued in 1982. ===1980s=== , released in 1981]] personal computer produced in 1985–1990 by the Tesla company in the former Socialist Czechoslovakia]] During the early 1980s, home computers were further developed for household use, with software for personal productivity, programming and games. They typically could be used with a television already in the home as the computer display, with low-detail blocky graphics and a limited color range, and text about 40 characters wide by 25 characters tall. Sinclair Research, a UK company, produced the ZX Series the ZX80 (1980), ZX81 (1981), and the ZX Spectrum; the latter was introduced in 1982, and totaled 8 million unit sold. Following came the Commodore 64, totaled 17 million units sold, the Galaksija (1983) introduced in Yugoslavia and the Amstrad CPC series (464–6128). In the same year, the NEC PC-98 was introduced, which was a very popular personal computer that sold more than 18 million units. Another famous personal computer, the revolutionary Amiga 1000, was unveiled by Commodore on 23 July 1985. The Amiga 1000 featured a multitasking, windowing operating system, color graphics with a 4096-color palette, stereo sound, Motorola 68000 CPU, 256 KB RAM, and 880 KB 3.5-inch disk drive, for US$1,295. IBM's first PC, the IBM 5150, was introduced on 12 August 1981 at a price of US$1,565. It operated with the 5 megahertz (later 16 megahertz) Intel 8088 chip. What was later dubbed MS-DOS was the computer's Microsoft-produced operating system. A word processor EasyWriter and a spreadsheet client VisiCalc were preinstalled. Customers could pay an additional $3,000 to add a printer, a display and two diskette drives. The 5150's open architecture (IBM encouraged the development of third-party software and peripherals for the computer) set a mass market standard for PC design. In 1982 the personal computer, dubbed The Computer, was named Machine of the Year by Time magazine. Somewhat larger and more expensive systems were aimed at office and small business use. These often featured 80-column text displays but might not have had graphics or sound capabilities. These microprocessor-based systems were still less costly than time-shared mainframes or minicomputers. Workstations were characterized by high-performance processors and graphics displays, with large-capacity local disk storage, networking capability, and running under a multitasking operating system. Eventually, due to the influence of the IBM PC on the personal computer market, personal computers and home computers lost any technical distinction. Business computers acquired color graphics capability and sound, and home computers and game systems users used the same processors and operating systems as office workers. Mass-market computers had graphics capabilities and memory comparable to dedicated workstations of a few years before. Even local area networking, originally a way to allow business computers to share expensive mass storage and peripherals, became a standard feature of personal computers used at home. An increasingly important set of uses for personal computers relied on the ability of the computer to communicate with other computer systems, allowing interchange of information. Experimental public access to a shared mainframe computer system was demonstrated as early as 1973 in the Community Memory project, but bulletin board systems and online service providers became more commonly available after 1978. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s, giving public access to the rapidly growing network. In 1984, Apple Computer launched the Macintosh, with an advertisement during the Super Bowl. The Macintosh was the first successful mass-market mouse-driven computer with a graphical user interface or 'WIMP' (Windows, Icons, Menus, and Pointers). Based on the Motorola 68000 microprocessor, the Macintosh included many of the Lisa's features at a price of US$2,495. The Macintosh was introduced with 128 KB of RAM and later that year a 512 KB RAM model became available. To reduce costs compared to the Lisa, the year-younger Macintosh had a simplified motherboard design, no internal hard drive, and a single 3.5-inch floppy drive. Applications that came with the Macintosh included MacPaint, a bit-mapped graphics program, and MacWrite, which demonstrated WYSIWYG word processing. The Macintosh was a successful personal computer for years to come. This is particularly due to the introduction of desktop publishing in 1985 through Apple's partnership with Adobe. This partnership introduced the LaserWriter printer and Aldus PageMaker to users of the personal computer. During Steve Jobs's hiatus from Apple, a number of different models of Macintosh, including the Macintosh Plus and Macintosh II, were released to a great degree of success. The entire Macintosh line of computers was IBM's major competition up until the early 1990s. ===1990s=== In 1991, the World Wide Web was made available for public use. The combination of powerful personal computers with high-resolution graphics and sound, with the infrastructure provided by the Internet, and the standardization of access methods of the Web browsers, established the foundation for a significant fraction of modern life, from bus time tables through unlimited distribution of free videos through to online user-edited encyclopedias. ====Palmtop and handheld PCs==== Palmtop PCs were miniature pocket-sized computers running MS-DOS that first came about in the late 1980s, typically in a clamshell form factor with a keyboard. Non-x86 based devices were often called palmtop computers, examples being Psion Series 3. In later years a hardware specification called Handheld PC was later released by Microsoft that run the Windows CE operating system. CRT monitor is visible in the background.|alt=]] Software applications are common for word processing, Internet browsing, Internet faxing, e-mail and other digital messaging, multimedia playback, playing of computer game, and computer programming. The user may have significant knowledge of the operating environment and application programs, but is not necessarily interested in programming nor even able to write programs for the computer. Therefore, most software written primarily for personal computers tends to be designed with simplicity of use, or user-friendliness in mind. However, the software industry continuously provide a wide range of new products for use in personal computers, targeted at both the expert and the non-expert user. Institutional or corporate computer owners in the 1960s had to write their own programs to do any useful work with computers. While personal computer users may develop their own applications, these systems most frequently run commercial or free-of-charge software ("freeware"), which commonly has closed source (proprietary) codebases; or free and open-source software, where the source code is made freely available. Software for end-users is typically provided in binary (ready-to-run) form. Software for personal computers is typically developed and distributed independently from the hardware or operating system manufacturers. Practically all personal computer users no longer need to create programs themselves to make any use of a personal computer, although end-user programming is still feasible. This contrasts with mobile systems, where software is often available only through a manufacturer-supported channel and end-user program development may be discouraged by lack of support by the manufacturer. ==Sales== ===Market share=== ImageSize=width:375 height:350 PlotArea=left:60 bottom:51 top:10 right:16 AlignBars=justify Period=from:0 till:400 TimeAxis=orientation:horizontal Colors= id:gray value:gray(0.5) id:line1 value:gray(0.9) id:line2 value:gray(0.7) ScaleMajor=unit:year increment:50 start:0 gridcolor:line2 ScaleMinor=unit:year increment:50 start:0 gridcolor:line1 BarData= bar:1996 text:1996 bar:1997 text:1997 bar:1998 text:1998 bar:1999 text:1999 bar:2000 text:2000 bar:2001 text:2001 bar:2002 text:2002 bar:2003 text:2003 bar:2004 text:2004 bar:2005 text:2005 bar:2006 text:2006 bar:2007 text:2007 bar:2008 text:2008 bar:2009 text:2009 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2011 text:2011 bar:2012 text:2012 bar:2013 text:2013 bar:2014 text:2014 bar:2015 text:2015 bar:2016 text:2016 bar:2017 text:2017 PlotData= color:tan1 width:10 bar:1996 from:start till:70.90000 text:70.9 million bar:1997 from:start till:80.60000 text:80.6 million bar:1998 from:start till:92.90000 text:92.9 million bar:1999 from:start till:113.500000 text:113.5 million bar:2000 from:start till:134.700000 text:134.7 million bar:2001 from:start till:128.10000 text:128.1 million bar:2002 from:start till:132.40000 text:132.4 million bar:2003 from:start till:168.90000 text:168.9 million bar:2004 from:start till:189.0000 text:189 million bar:2005 from:start till:218.50000 text:218.5 million bar:2006 from:start till:239.4 text:239.4 million bar:2007 from:start till:271.20000 text:271.2 million bar:2008 from:start till:290.80000 text:290.8 million bar:2009 from:start till:308.30000 text:308.3 million bar:2010 from:start till:350.90000 text:350.9 million bar:2011 from:start till:365.400000 text:365.4 million bar:2012 from:start till:351.100000 text:351.1 million bar:2013 from:start till:316.50000 text:316.5 million bar:2014 from:start till:313.70000 text:313.7 million bar:2015 from:start till:287.70000 text:287.7 million bar:2016 from:start till:269.70000 text:269.7 million bar:2017 from:start till:259.40000 text:259.4 million TextData= pos:(70,20) textcolor:gray fontsize:S text:Worldwide PC sales TextData= pos:(70,5) textcolor:gray fontsize:S text:(1996–2017) In 2001, 125 million personal computers were shipped in comparison to 48,000 in 1977. More than 500 million personal computers were in use in 2002 and one billion personal computers had been sold worldwide from the mid-1970s up to this time (year 2002). Of the latter figure, 75% were professional or work related, while the rest were sold for personal or home use. About 81.5% of personal computers shipped had been desktop computers, 16.4% laptops and 2.1% servers. The United States had received 38.8% (394 million) of the computers shipped, Europe 25% and 11.7% had gone to the Asia-Pacific region, the fastest-growing market as of 2002. The second billion was expected to be sold by 2008. Almost half of all households in Western Europe had a personal computer and a computer could be found in 40% of homes in United Kingdom, compared with only 13% in 1985. The global personal computer shipments were 350.9 million units in 2010, 308.3 million units in 2009 and 302.2 million units in 2008. The shipments were 264 million units in the year 2007, according to iSuppli, up 11.2% from 239 million in 2006. In 2004, the global shipments were 183 million units, an 11.6% increase over 2003. In 2003, 152.6 million computers were shipped, at an estimated value of $175 billion. In 2002, 136.7 million PCs were shipped, at an estimated value of $175 billion. In 2000, 140.2 million personal computers were shipped, at an estimated value of $226 billion. Worldwide shipments of personal computers surpassed the 100-million mark in 1999, growing to 113.5 million units from 93.3 million units in 1998. In 1999, Asia had 14.1 million units shipped. As of June 2008, the number of personal computers in use worldwide hit one billion, while another billion is expected to be reached by 2014. Mature markets like the United States, Western Europe and Japan accounted for 58% of the worldwide installed PCs. The emerging markets were expected to double their installed PCs by 2012 and to take 70% of the second billion PCs. About 180 million computers (16% of the existing installed base) were expected to be replaced and 35 million to be dumped into landfill in 2008. The whole installed base grew 12% annually. Based on International Data Corporation (IDC) data for Q2 2011, for the first time China surpassed US in PC shipments by 18.5 million and 17.7 million respectively. This trend reflects the rising of emerging markets as well as the relative stagnation of mature regions. Besides the regular computer manufacturers, companies making especially rugged versions of computers have sprung up, offering alternatives for people operating their machines in extreme weather or environments. In 2011, Deloitte consulting firm predicted that, smartphones and tablet computers as computing devices would surpass the PCs sales (as has happened since 2012). As of 2013, worldwide sales of PCs had begun to fall as many consumers moved to tablets and smartphones. Sales of 90.3 million units in the fourth quarter of 2012 represented a 4.9% decline from sales in the fourth quarter of 2011. Global PC sales fell sharply in the first quarter of 2013, according to IDC data. The 14% year-over-year decline was the largest on record since the firm began tracking in 1994, and double what analysts had been expecting. The decline of Q2 2013 PC shipments marked the fifth straight quarter of falling sales. "This is horrific news for PCs", remarked an analyst. "It's all about mobile computing now. We have definitely reached the tipping point." Data from Gartner showed a similar decline for the same time period. China's Lenovo Group bucked the general trend as strong sales to first-time buyers in the developing world allowed the company's sales to stay flat overall. Windows 8, which was designed to look similar to tablet/smartphone software, was cited as a contributing factor in the decline of new PC sales. "Unfortunately, it seems clear that the Windows 8 launch not only didn't provide a positive boost to the PC market, but appears to have slowed the market," said IDC Vice President Bob O'Donnell. In August 2013, Credit Suisse published research findings that attributed around 75% of the operating profit share of the PC industry to Microsoft (operating system) and Intel (semiconductors). According to IDC, in 2013 PC shipments dropped by 9.8% as the greatest drop-ever in line with consumers trends to use mobile devices. In the second quarter of 2018, PC sales grew for the first time since the first quarter of 2012. According to research firm Gartner, the growth mainly came from the business market while the consumer market experienced decline. In 2020, as the result of the COVID-19 pandemic with more people working at home and learning remotely, PC sales grew by 26.1% compared to previous years according to IDC. According to Canalys, 2020 was the highest growth rate for the PC market since 2011. This upward trend continued into 2021, with global PC shipments reaching over 340 million units, the highest since 2012, representing a 14.6% year-over-year growth. Notebooks and mobile workstations led the charge, with shipments growing 16% to reach 275 million units, while desktops and desktop workstations increased 7% to reach 66 million units. Major vendors such as Lenovo, HP, Dell, and Apple all saw significant increases in sales. The market saw increased demand not only from consumers and students but also from businesses investing in hybrid work infrastructure. However, by late 2022, the market began to stabilize as demand cooled down and supply chain challenges, including chip shortages, began to ease. Worldwide shipments of desktop and laptop computers fell by 19.5% in the third quarter of 2022 compared with the year-ago period, marking the steepest decline Gartner has documented in more than two decades of tracking the market. After a period of volatility, the global PC market began to stabilize in 2023. According to IDC, worldwide PC shipments during the fourth quarter of 2024 grew 1.8% year-over-year, reaching 68.9 million units. Canalys reported a 3.2% annual growth in the first quarter of 2024, totaling 57.2 million units, with notebook shipments increasing by 4.2%. In the first quarter of 2025, global PC shipments experienced a significant uptick, growing 9.4% year-over-year to 62.7 million units. This surge was partly attributed to manufacturers accelerating shipments to the U.S. ahead of newly implemented tariffs under President Donald Trump's trade policies. Lenovo maintained its lead in the global PC market, shipping 15.2 million units with an 11% growth, followed by HP with 12.8 million units (6% growth), Dell with 9.5 million units (3% growth), and Apple with 6.5 million units, marking a 22% increase. The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) capabilities into PCs emerged as a significant trend during this period. ===Average selling price=== Selling prices of personal computers steadily declined due to lower costs of production and manufacture, while the capabilities of computers increased. In 1975, an Altair kit sold for around only , but required customers to solder components into circuit boards; peripherals required to interact with the system in alphanumeric form instead of blinking lights would add another , and the resultant system was of use only to hobbyists. At their introduction in 1981, the price of the Osborne 1 and its competitor Kaypro was considered an attractive price point; these systems had text-only displays and only floppy disks for storage. By 1982, Michael Dell observed that a personal computer system selling at retail for about was made of components that cost the dealer about ; typical gross margin on a computer unit was around . The total value of personal computer purchases in the US in 1983 was about . By late 1998, the average selling price of personal computer systems in the United States had dropped below . For Microsoft Windows systems, the average selling price (ASP) showed a decline in 2008/2009, possibly due to low-cost netbooks, drawing for desktop computers and $689 for laptops at U.S. retail in August 2008. In 2009, ASP had further fallen to for desktops and to for notebooks by January and to in February. According to research firm NPD, the average selling price of all Windows portable PCs has fallen from in October 2008 to in October 2009. ==Environmental impact== External costs of environmental impact are not fully included in the selling price of personal computers. Personal computers have become a large contributor to the 50 million tons of discarded electronic waste generated annually, according to the United Nations Environment Programme. To address the electronic waste issue affecting developing countries and the environment, extended producer responsibility (EPR) acts have been implemented in various countries and states. In the absence of comprehensive national legislation or regulation on the export and import of electronic waste, the Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition and BAN (Basel Action Network) teamed up with electronic recyclers in the US and Canada to create an e-steward program for the orderly disposal of electronic waste. Some organizations oppose EPR regulation, and claim that manufacturers naturally move toward reduced material and energy use. PC Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 6, November 1983, "SCAMP: The Missing Link in the PC's Past?"

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