Sinosphere

s, legendary creatures in Sinosphere mythology and culture in East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia. Red: Chinese characters; Green: Brahmi script; Blue: Aramaic (Mongolian script, Manchu alphabet, Old Uyghur alphabet, and Arabic script). , Đại Việt, Goryeo, and Heian-era Japan) The Sinosphere, also known as the Chinese cultural sphere, East Asian cultural sphere, or the Sinic world, encompasses multiple countries in East Asia and Southeast Asia that were historically heavily influenced by Chinese culture. The Sinosphere comprises Greater China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. Historically, it also included the Ryukyu Kingdom. Singapore and Malaysia might also be included due to modern-era overseas Chinese migration. The Sinosphere is different from the Sinophone world, which indicates regions where the Chinese language is spoken. Imperial China was a major regional power in Eastern Asia and exerted influence on tributary states and neighboring states, including Japan, Korea and Vietnam. These interactions brought ideological and cultural influences rooted in Confucianism, Taoism and East Asian Buddhism. The four cultures were ruled by their respective emperors under similar administrative systems, furthermore, the adoption of the Confucian-based imperial examination system deeply influenced the bureaucracy and social structure of Korea and Vietnam.…

s, legendary creatures in Sinosphere mythology and culture in East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia. Red: Chinese characters; Green: Brahmi script; Blue: Aramaic (Mongolian script, Manchu alphabet, Old Uyghur alphabet, and Arabic script). , Đại Việt, Goryeo, and Heian-era Japan) The Sinosphere, also known as the Chinese cultural sphere, East Asian cultural sphere, or the Sinic world, encompasses multiple countries in East Asia and Southeast Asia that were historically heavily influenced by Chinese culture. The Sinosphere comprises Greater China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. Historically, it also included the Ryukyu Kingdom. Singapore and Malaysia might also be included due to modern-era overseas Chinese migration. The Sinosphere is different from the Sinophone world, which indicates regions where the Chinese language is spoken. Imperial China was a major regional power in Eastern Asia and exerted influence on tributary states and neighboring states, including Japan, Korea and Vietnam. These interactions brought ideological and cultural influences rooted in Confucianism, Taoism and East Asian Buddhism. The four cultures were ruled by their respective emperors under similar administrative systems, furthermore, the adoption of the Confucian-based imperial examination system deeply influenced the bureaucracy and social structure of Korea and Vietnam. Chinese inventions influenced, and were in turn influenced by, innovations of the other cultures in governance, philosophy, science, and the arts. Literary Chinese became the written lingua franca for bureaucracy and communications, and Chinese characters became locally adapted as kanji in Japan, hanja in Korea, and chữ Hán in Vietnam. The literary importance of classical Chinese was moderated as Japan, Korea and Vietnam invented their own phonographic writing systems, with Japan developing the katakana and hiragana scripts, Korea creating the hangul, and Vietnam initially developing but replacing it with Latin-based Vietnamese alphabet since the 1910s due to French colonization. However Classical Chinese or modified versions of it such as kanbun and the Idu script remained in official use until the modern era. In the 21st century, ideological and cultural influences of Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism remain visible in high culture and social doctrines. ==Terminology== Ancient China was one of the cradles of civilization, with the emergent cultures that arose from the migration of Han settlers from the Yellow River generally regarded as the origin of the East Asian world. Japanese historian (1919–1998), professor emeritus at the University of Tokyo, coined the term to refer to an East Asian cultural sphere distinct from the cultures of the West. According to Nishijima, this cultural sphere—which includes China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam—shared the philosophy of Confucianism, the religion of Buddhism, and similar political and social structures stemming from a background of historical Classical Chinese scholars. It has also been informally referred to as the "chopsticks sphere" due to perceived native use of these utensils across the region. ===Etymology=== The term is derived from 'China' ( Sinophone) + , in the sense of the sphere of influence under the influence of a country. The CJK languages—Chinese, Japanese, Korean—each use cognate terms to translate English sphere: Chinese ( ; 'circle', 'ring', 'pen') Japanese ( ; 'sphere', 'circle', 'range', 'radius') Korean ( ; from ) Unlike with the other languages of the Sinosphere, the corresponding Vietnamese cognate is not used to mean 'sphere' or 'area'. Instead, ('region', 'area') is used. The Chinese is translated in Vietnamese as ( ). In the Ryukyuan languages, ( ; ) is not used to mean 'sphere', 'area', or 'domain' and only appears in kammun texts written by Ryukyuans. Instead, ( ) is used to mean 'world' or 'sphere'. As such, and would be translated as ( ) and ( ), respectively. Victor H. Mair discussed the origins of these 'culture sphere' terms. The Chinese ( ) dates to a 1941 translation for the German term , ('culture circle, field'), which the Austrian ethnologists Fritz Graebner and Wilhelm Schmidt proposed. Japanese historian coined the expressions and , which China later re-borrowed as loanwords. The Sinosphere may be taken to be synonymous to Ancient China and its descendant civilizations as well as the "Far Eastern civilizations" (the Mainland and the Japanese ones). In Toynbee's A Study of History (1934–1961), the Sinosphere is presented as among the major "units of study", along with the Western, Islamic, Eastern Orthodox, and Indic civilizations. ==Culture== , one of the most famous Japanese woodblock prints Cultural commonalities among the Sinosphere countries reflect their shared source of influence from Imperial China. ===Arts=== is deeply influenced by the Sinosphere. Architecture: Countries of the East Asian cultural sphere (Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan, China) share a common architectural style stemming from the architecture of ancient China. Calligraphy: Caoshu is a cursive script style used in Chinese and East Asian calligraphy. Cinema: see Hong Kong cinema, Taiwanese cinema, Chinese cinema, Japanese cinema, Korean cinema, Vietnamese cinema Comic: see manga (Japanese comics), manhua (Chinese comics), manhwa (Korean comics), truyện tranh (Vietnamese comics) Gardening: The art of cultivating miniature trees and landscapes: see bonsai (Japanese), penjing (Chinese), bunjae (Korean), hòn non bộ (Vietnamese) Martial arts: see gōngfu (kung fu; Chinese martial arts); taekwondo and hapkido (Korean martial arts); karate, aikido, judo, jujutsu and sumo (Japanese martial arts); vovinam and nhất nam (Vietnamese martial arts) Music: Chinese musical instruments, such as the erhu, have influenced those of Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Vietnam and Yazheng influenced Japan (koto), Korea(gayageum) and Mongolia (yatga). Clothing: Hanfu, hanbok, việt phục, and wafuku all use silk. Jade jewelry and ornaments are also highly valued throughout East Asia and Southeast Asia. ===Cuisine=== The cuisine of East Asia shares many of the same ingredients and techniques. Chopsticks are used as an eating utensil in all of the core East Asian countries. The use of soy sauce, which is made from fermenting soybeans, is also widespread in the region. Rice is the staple food in all of East Asia and is a major focus of food security. Moreover, in East Asian countries such as Japan ( ; ), Korea ( ; bap), and Vietnam (cơm; 𩚵 or ), the word for "cooked rice" can embody the meaning of food in general. Popular terms associated with East Asian cuisine include boba, kimchi, sushi, hot pot, tea, dim sum, ramen, as well as phở, sashimi, udon, and chả giò. ===Traditions=== Fashion: see hanfu and cheongsam (or ) (Chinese and Manchu); việt phục and áo dài (Vietnamese); (deel) (Mongolian); hanbok (Korean); kimono and wafuku (Japanese) Dance: The lion dance is a form of traditional dance in Chinese culture and other East Asian countries, in which performers in a lion costume mimic a lion's movements to bring good luck and fortune. Aside from China, versions of the lion dance are found in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, and Taiwan. Lion dances are usually performed during Lunar New Year celebrations. New Year: China (Zhōngguó Xīn Nián), Korea (Seollal), Vietnam (Tết Nguyên Đán), Mongolia (Tsagaan sar), Japan (Koshōgatsu), and Taiwan traditionally observe the same Lunar New Year. However, Japan has moved its New Year ( ) to fit the Western New Year since the Meiji Restoration. Although mainland Japan no longer celebrates Lunar New Year, some indigenous minority ethnic groups in Japan still do, such as the Ryukyuan people (Okinawans). Okinawa has traditionally observed the Lunar New Year because of heavy Chinese influence in its past. Okinawans still celebrate and partake in many traditions for Lunar New Year, though to less of an extent than Western New Year. ===Literature=== (佛說大報父母恩重經) in Korean (left), Vietnamese (center), and Japanese (right). The Korean edition includes Hangul annotations, the Vietnamese edition includes a Giải âm translation, and the Japanese edition includes Kanbun glossing. East Asian literary culture is based on the use of Literary Chinese, which became the medium of scholarship, administration, and government across the region. Although Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed vernacular writing systems for their languages, these were limited to popular literature. Literary Chinese remained the medium of formal writing until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when it was swept away by rising nationalism and displaced by vernacular writing. Though they did not use Chinese for spoken communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud, the so-called Sino-Xenic pronunciations, which provide clues to the pronunciation of Middle Chinese. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also borrowed extensively by local vernaculars and today comprise over half their vocabularies. Vernacular or standard Chinese encompassing varieties of Chinese also developed alongside the use of Literary Chinese. Books in Literary Chinese were widely distributed. By the 7th century and possibly earlier, woodblock printing had been developed in China. At first, it was used only to copy Buddhist scriptures, but later secular works were also printed. By the 13th century, metal movable type was used by government printers in Korea but seems to have not been extensively used in China, Vietnam, or Japan. At the same time, manuscript reproduction remained important until the late 19th century. Japan's textual scholarship had Chinese origins, which made Japan one of the birthplaces of modern sinology. The Four Books and Five Classics are the authoritative books of Confucianism, which were used to study for civil service examinations in China, Korea, and Vietnam. ==Philosophy and religion== The Art of War, Tao Te Ching, I Ching, and Analects are classic Chinese texts that have been influential in East Asian history. More generally, the philosophies and practices of Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism have had long-standing and deep-rooted influence in Sinosphere countries. ===Taoism=== Taoism has influenced countries throughout the Sinosphere. The Taoist school of thought emerged in China from the teachings of Lao Tse. It follows the search for the tao, a concept that is equivalent to a 'path' or 'course' and represents the cosmic force that creates the universe and all things. According to this belief, the wisdom of the tao is the only source of the universe and represents a natural path of life events. Thus, the adherents of Taoism follow the search for tao, which represents the strength of the universe. The most important text in Taoism, the Tao Te Ching ("Book of the Way and Virtue", c. 300 BC), declares that the tao is the "source" of the universe, thus considered a creative principle, but not as a deity. Nature manifests itself spontaneously, without a higher intention, and it is up to humans to integrate, through "non-action" (wu wei) and spontaneity (zi ran), to its flow and rhythms, in order to achieve happiness and a long life. Taoism is a combination of teachings from various sources; it manifests as a system that can be philosophical, religious, or ethical. The tradition can also be presented as a worldview and a way of life. ===Buddhism=== in Nara, Japan is affiliated to the Huayan School of Mahayana Buddhism, which is a religion particular to the Sinic world Buddhist philosophy is guided by the teachings of the Buddha, which lead the individual to enlightenment through meditative practices, mindfulness, and reflection on their daily actions. The belief is that physical and spiritual awareness leads to a state of enlightenment called nirvana, which, according to Buddha, is the highest state of meditation. In this state the individual finds peace and tranquility above the oscillations of thoughts and emotions and is rid of the inherent suffering of the physical world. Buddhism in the Sinosphere is or derives from Mahayana Buddhism, a sect which is seen to be intertwined within Taoism and Confucianism. It advocates for altruism and compassion, as well as understanding and escaping from suffering in relation to karma. Vegetarianism or veganism is followed by more monastic or devout Buddhists of this sect, and even among lay Buddhists, as it leads to compassion for all living, sentient beings. ===Confucianism=== , China. Confucianism plays a crucial part in East Asian culture. . Confucian education and imperial examinations played a huge role in creating scholars and mandarins (bureaucrats) for East Asian dynasties. The countries of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam share a Confucian philosophical worldview. Confucianism is a humanistic philosophy that believes that human beings are teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor, especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucianism focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics, the most basic of which are: rén ( ): an obligation of altruism and humaneness for other individuals yì ( / ): the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good lǐ ( / ): a system of norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act in everyday life ====Neo-Confucianism==== Mid-Imperial Chinese philosophy is primarily defined by the development of neo-Confucianism, which has its origins in the Tang dynasty. The Confucianist scholar Han Yu is seen as a forebear of the neo-Confucianists of the Song dynasty. The Song dynasty philosopher Zhou Dunyi is seen as the first true "pioneer" of neo-Confucianism, using Taoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy. Elsewhere in East Asia, Japanese philosophy began to develop as indigenous Shinto beliefs fused with Buddhism, Confucianism, and other schools of Chinese philosophy. Similarly, in Korean philosophy, elements of shamanism were integrated into the neo-Confucianism imported from China. In Vietnam, neo-Confucianism, along with Taoism and Buddhism, were also developed into Vietnam's own , which together with Vietnamese folk religion shaped Vietnamese philosophy. ===Other religions=== Though not commonly identified with East Asia, the following religions have been influential in its history. Christianity is the most popular religion in South Korea, followed by Buddhism. Significant Christian communities are also found in mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, Singapore, Japan, and Vietnam. In recent years, various denominations of Christianity, mainly Protestantism and Catholicism, have gained popularity in these areas, due to its own version of spirituality and charitability. However, it is unlikely to supersede the more natively rooted Buddhism, except in places like South Korea where Protestantism is more popular. In Vietnam, Roman Catholicism is prominent, and early Christian missionaries played a historical role in romanizing the Vietnamese language prior to French colonial rule. In South Korea, mainland China, and Hong Kong, Protestantism is the most common denomination, followed by Catholicism. In Taiwan, most follow Presbyterianism, followed by Catholicism. In Vietnam and Macau, Catholicism is more common, followed by Protestantism. In Japan, of the minority that are Christian, 60% were Protestant and the rest were Roman Catholic. In places with a Chinese majority but the potential for English as a first language, such as Singapore, Christianity is becoming more popular, with the most popular being Protestant branches, followed by Catholicism. Islam has been practiced in China since the 7th century CE. It is the most popular religion in Xinjiang and has significant communities in Ningxia. For Hinduism, see Hinduism in Vietnam, Hinduism in China. No specific religious affiliation may also be practiced, and is often the most cited in several aforementioned countries. However, regardless of religious affiliations, most people in the Sinosphere are entwined with traces of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, or native religions and philosophies. ==Language== ===Languages and language families=== The following language families are found in and around the East Asian cultural sphere. Some have historically contributed to the vocabulary or development of Sinitic languages, while others have been influenced by them to some degree. Only some of these languages are highly indebted to Literary Chinese and thus relevant to the East Asian cultural sphere. The core languages of the East Asian cultural sphere are predominantly Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese (CJKV), and their respective variants. These are well-documented to have historically used Chinese characters, with Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese each having roughly 60% of their vocabulary derived from Chinese. There is a small set of minor languages that are comparable to the core East Asian languages, such as Zhuang and Hmong-Mien. They are often overlooked, since neither have their own country nor heavily export their culture, but Zhuang has been written in Hanzi-inspired characters called Sawndip for over 1,000 years. Hmong, while having supposedly lacked a writing system until modern history, is also suggested to have a similar percentage of Chinese loans to the core CJKV languages. Due to the common usage of Chinese characters across East Asian nations, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese people traditionally can engage in written communication using Literary Chinese without knowing other people's spoken language, a method called brushtalk. As a result, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese are also deemed Sino-Xenic languages that are highly influenced by ancient forms of Literary Chinese. ===Writing systems=== Chinese characters are considered the common culture that unifies the languages and cultures of many East Asian nations. Today, mainland China, Malaysia, and Singapore use Simplified Chinese characters, whereas Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau use Traditional Chinese characters. Historically, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam have also used Chinese characters. Today, they are still used in Japan and South Korea, albeit in different forms. Japan invented kana, inspired by the Chinese cursive script, which is the main script used today. However, it is still heavily supplemented by the use of kanji to aid in disambiguation of homonyms. Korea used to write in hanja but has invented an alphabetic system called hangul that is nowadays the majority script. Most names still use hanja in addition to the hangul names, however, hanja names are rarely used in everyday life. Hanja is also studied and used in academia, newspapers, and law—areas where a lot of scholarly terms and Sino-Korean loanwords are used and necessary to distinguish between otherwise ambiguous homonyms. Vietnam used to write in chữ Hán (Chinese characters) in Classical Chinese texts ( ). In the 8th century, the Vietnamese began inventing many of their own chữ Nôm characters. Since French colonization, they have switched to using a modified version of the Latin alphabet called chữ Quốc ngữ. Chinese characters had a long and great influence on Vietnamese history and literature, and thus still hold a special place in Vietnamese culture. In Vietnam (and North Korea), chữ Hán can be seen in temples, cemeteries, and monuments as well as serving as decorative motifs in art and design. Zhuang people are similar to the Vietnamese in that they used to write in Sawgun (Chinese characters) and have invented many of their own characters, called Sawndip. Sawndip is still used informally and in traditional settings, but the Chinese government officially promotes the use of an alphabetical script, which it introduced in 1957, for the language. ==Economy and trade== ===Business culture=== The business cultures of East Asia are heavily influenced by Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. Common factors across the Sinosphere tend to place great emphasis and respect towards traits of humility and conformity. Japan often features hierarchically organized companies, and Japanese work environments place a high value on interpersonal relationships. A leader of a Japanese company is typically valued on their ability to maintain social harmony, and to unify or bring together their employees, rather than simply being the top decision maker. Korean businesses, adhering to Confucian values, are structured around a patriarchal family governed by filial piety ( ) between management and employees, where knowing one's place within the hierarchy, and showing respect for a person's age and status, are very important in Korean society. It is not uncommon for people in a Korean office to refer to others as their seniors ( ) or their juniors ( ). A person's position within a company usually reflects their age, and juniors tend to listen to their seniors without pause. Koreans value maintaining a social harmonious environment that allows a worker's (mood or emotional feelings) to remain balanced. Maintaining face is usually how business and social relationships work in East Asia, whereas aggressively patronising others, or criticising them publicly in front of others, tend to be the ways to lose business relationships. In Chinese business culture, there is a high value on nurturing relationships using the social concept of guanxi, which refers to a state of having personal trust and a solid relationship with someone, and can involve exchanging favours and have moral obligations to one another. Vietnamese culture tends to be hierarchical by age and seniority. The Vietnamese prefer to work with those who they trust, extending this to business relations that often are maintained between peers and relatives. Women have an important role in Vietnamese culture (owing to their historical status as soldiers). Interpersonal relationships are also highly valued. Vietnamese businesspeople may take spoken word as fact. Maintaining face is highly important—anger or displaying temper will reduce trust. When there are disruptions in harmony, Vietnamese may use silence as a way of allowing any tension to simmer down. ===History=== During the Industrial Revolution, East Asia modernized and became an area of economic power, starting with the Meiji Restoration in the late 19th century, when Japan rapidly transformed itself into the only industrial power outside the North Atlantic area. ====Postwar economies==== Hong Kong's successful post–WWII economy, based on developing strong textile and manufacturing industries, led to the territory's categorization as one of the Four Asian Tigers. South Korea followed a similar route, developing its textile industry. After the post–WWII US military occupation of the country, the Korean War, and the ultimate division of the peninsula, South Korea experienced what has become known as the Miracle on the Han River, with the rise of chaebols like Samsung and LG strongly driving its economy. As of 2023, South Korea had the 12th largest economy in the world by nominal GDP. Japanese economic growth stagnated in the 1990s; yet it currently remains the world's 3rd largest economy by nominal GDP. Presently, higher growth in the region has been experienced by China and the Tiger Cub Economies of Southeast Asia, particularly Vietnam. The impact of the Vietnam War was devastating. Vietnam only started opening its economy through Đổi Mới reforms in 1986, and the US lifted its embargo on Vietnam only in 1995. Since then, the Vietnamese economy has been developing at a rapid pace. ====Modern era==== nations with the share of economic activity done by Han Chinese people and their population. Singapore, one of the most successful Southeast Asian states, may also be considered as Sinosphere in some circumstances (due to its majority overseas Chinese population). Up until the early 2010s, Vietnamese trade was heavily dependent on China. Most Chinese-Vietnamese people are from Cantonese background, and can speak Cantonese and Vietnamese, which share many linguistic similarities. Vietnam, one of the Next Eleven countries , is regarded as a rising economic power in Southeast Asia. Since the reform and opening up, China's economy has grown rapidly. In 2020, the country had become the 2nd and 1st-largest economy in the world respectively by nominal GDP and GDP (PPP). Although Greater China, Japan, and Korea all have extensive links with the rest of ASEAN, Vietnam is the only Sinosphere country that is formally part of ASEAN as a Southeast Asian country. Singapore, a highly developed economy, is also a part of ASEAN with a population that is significantly overseas Chinese. The economies of China and Japan are respectively the world's second- and third-largest economies by nominal GDP, and both are highly influential globally in terms of cultural exportation. South Korea was the 13th largest in 2022 by nominal GDP and has been highly influential as well, with the popularity of the Korean wave since the 1990s. North Korea was the 107th largest, and Vietnam the 35th largest, by nominal GDP in 2023. Sinosphere countries are involved in various economic groups and initiatives, including: Belt and Road Initiative Shanghai Cooperation Organization ASEAN, ASEAN Plus Three, AFTA East Asia Summit East Asian Community Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership ==See also== Adoption of Chinese literary culture Chinese influence on Japanese culture I Ching's influence List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official language List of Confucian states and dynasties Culture of East Asia Internal relations History of Japan–Korea relations North Korea–South Korea relations ==Notes== ==References== ===Citations=== ===Sources=== Joshua Fogel, "The Sinic World," in Ainslie Thomas Embree, Carol Gluck, ed., Asia in Western and World History a Guide for Teaching. (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, Columbia Project on Asia in the Core Curriculum, 1997). . Access may be limited to NetLibrary affiliated libraries. EBSCOhost Login ==External links== Asia for Educators. Weatherhead East Asian Institute, Columbia University.

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