Vasodilation

Vasodilation, also known as vasorelaxation, is the widening of blood vessels. It results from relaxation of smooth muscle cells within the vessel walls, in particular in the large veins, large arteries, and smaller arterioles. Blood vessel walls are composed of endothelial tissue and a basal membrane lining the lumen of the vessel, concentric smooth muscle layers on top of endothelial tissue, and an adventitia over the smooth muscle layers. Relaxation of the smooth muscle layer allows the blood vessel to dilate, as it is held in a semi-constricted state by sympathetic nervous system activity. Vasodilation is the opposite of vasoconstriction, which is the narrowing of blood vessels. When blood vessels dilate, the flow of blood is increased due to a decrease in vascular resistance and increase in cardiac output . Vascular resistance is the amount of force circulating blood must overcome in order to allow perfusion of body tissues. Narrow vessels create more vascular resistance, while dilated vessels decrease vascular resistance. Vasodilation acts to increase cardiac output by decreasing afterload, one of the four determinants of cardiac output. By expanding available area for blood to circulate, vasodilation decreases blood pressure. The response may be intrinsic (due to local processes in the surrounding tissue) or extrinsic (due to hormones or the nervous system).…

Vasodilation, also known as vasorelaxation, is the widening of blood vessels. It results from relaxation of smooth muscle cells within the vessel walls, in particular in the large veins, large arteries, and smaller arterioles. Blood vessel walls are composed of endothelial tissue and a basal membrane lining the lumen of the vessel, concentric smooth muscle layers on top of endothelial tissue, and an adventitia over the smooth muscle layers. Relaxation of the smooth muscle layer allows the blood vessel to dilate, as it is held in a semi-constricted state by sympathetic nervous system activity. Vasodilation is the opposite of vasoconstriction, which is the narrowing of blood vessels. When blood vessels dilate, the flow of blood is increased due to a decrease in vascular resistance and increase in cardiac output . Vascular resistance is the amount of force circulating blood must overcome in order to allow perfusion of body tissues. Narrow vessels create more vascular resistance, while dilated vessels decrease vascular resistance. Vasodilation acts to increase cardiac output by decreasing afterload, one of the four determinants of cardiac output. By expanding available area for blood to circulate, vasodilation decreases blood pressure. The response may be intrinsic (due to local processes in the surrounding tissue) or extrinsic (due to hormones or the nervous system). In addition, the response may be localized to a specific organ (depending on the metabolic needs of a particular tissue, as during strenuous exercise), or it may be systemic (seen throughout the entire systemic circulation). Endogenous substances and drugs that cause vasodilation are termed vasodilators. Many of these substances are neurotransmitters released by perivascular nerves of the autonomic nervous system. Baroreceptors sense blood pressure and allow adaptation via the mechanisms of vasoconstriction or vasodilation to maintain homeostasis. In the case of inflammation, vasodilation is caused by cytokines. Interferon gamma, TNF-a, interleukin 1 beta, and interleukin 12 are a few examples of some inflammatory cytokines produced by immune cells such as natural killer cells, B cells, T cells, mast cells and macrophages. Anti-inflammatory cytokines that regulate inflammation and help prevent negative results such as septic shock are also produced by these immune cells. Vasodilation and increased vascular permeability also allow immune effector cells to leave blood vessels and follow chemoattractants to the infection site via a process called leukocyte extravasation. Vasodilation allows the same volume of blood to move more slowly according to the flow rate equation Q = Av, where Q represents flow rate, A represents cross-sectional area, and v represents velocity. Immune effector cells can more easily attach to selectins expressed on endothelial cells when blood is flowing slowly, enabling these cells to exit the blood vessel via diapedesis. Anaphylaxis is a severe allergic reaction characterized by elevated vascular permeability, systemic vasodilation, gastrointestinal dysfunction, and respiratory dysfunction. Anaphylatoxins, specifically complement proteins C3a and C5a, bind to receptors on mast cells and basophils causing degranulation. Granules in these cells contain histamine, platelet-activating factor, and other compounds causing clinical manifestation of anaphylaxis- including systemic vasodilation causing dangerously low blood pressure. Immunoglobulin E, an antibody produced by plasma cells, also binds to receptors on mast cells and basophils causing degranulation.

Endogenous

The vasodilating action of activation of beta-2 receptors (such as by adrenaline) appears to be endothelium-independent.

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